Identification of Unknown Compound using 13C NMR

Identification of Unknown Compound using 13C NMR Identification of Unknown Compound #15 using 13C NMR and IR Spectra Paired with Melting Point Analysis Abstract Given an unknown compound, infrared (IR) spectroscopy can be used to determine the functional groups that make up the compound. This can be supplemented with 13C NMR spectroscopy and melting point analysis to determine the identity of the unknown compound. After completion of the analysis methods, it was determined that the identity of the unknown compound (unknown #15) is p-Methylaniline (p-Toluidine), C7H9N (Figure 1). Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is extensively used instrumental technique in organic chemistry. It is the measurement of the wavelength and intensity of the absorption of mid-infrared light by a sample. Mid-infrared is energetic enough to excite molecular vibrations to higher energy levels. The wavelength of infrared absorption bands is characteristic of specific types of chemical bonds, and infrared spectroscopy finds its greatest utility for identification of functional groups within organic molecules (1). An infrared spectrophotometer is an instrument that passes infrared light through an organic molecule and produces a spectrum that contains a plot of the amount of light transmitted on the vertical axis against the wavelength of infrared radiation on the horizontal axis. In infrared spectra the absorption peaks point downward because the vertical axis is the percentage transmittance of the radiation through the sample (2). Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) can be used to complement IR spectroscopy. While IR can determine functional groups, NMR can determine the molecular structure. Finding the melting point of the unknown can help to determine the purity of the compound. Results IR Data: Functional Group Molecular Motion Observed Wavenumber (cm-1) Literature Value Range1-3 (cm-1) Peak Intensity Peak Shape N-H Stretch 3333.85 3335 Weak Sharp C-H Stretch 2914.73 2780 Weak Sharp C=C Stretch 1621.28 1600-1430 Medium Sharp C-H Bending(in plane) 1274.33 1275-1000 Medium Narrow 13C NMR Data: Atom Atom Group Peak Observed (ppm) Peak Calculated (ppm) 1 C-N 144 144 2 and 6 CH 115 115.2 3 and 5 CH 130 129.60 4 C=C 127 126.7 7 CH3 21 21.26 Melting Point Data: Observed Melting Point Range ( °C) Literature Melting Point Range4 ( °C) Trial 1 44-47 44-45 Trial 2   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   44-45 Discussion The IR analysis of the unknown compound 15 determined that it consists of a benzene ring, amino and methyl groups. According to the referred literature (3) values of 3335-3400 range for stretches are evident which indicates primary amines. The spectrum shows primary amines stretch at 3333.85 Next can be noticed that CH stretches from the benzene ring occur at 3014.65 and 2914.73. C=C stretches are known to occur at the 1600-1430 according to literature, and in this spectra are illustrated at 1621.28 At 1274.33C-H bend is evident. This spectrum correlates well with literature values which confirms successful identification of p-methylaniline. The melting point analysis was used to determine the purity of the unknown sample. The literature values for p-methylaniline range from 44-45 °C (4) and the observed melting point values were 44-47 °C for trial 1 and 44-45 °C for trial 2. The trial 1 has a higher melting point compare to the literature values. This could be due to the amount of sample placed in the capillary tubes as well as the purity of the sample (4). Because trial 1 has such a large range, the sample may not be pure. The results from the 13C NMR showed that compound contained summetry. Two peaks of the same height were observed at about 115 and 130ppm and two other peaks at 144 and 127ppm. According to the literature values aromatic carbons appear between 120-160ppm (3), which helped to determine that this compound contains a benzene ring. It was noted as well that one other peak appeared much further downfield at 21ppm. Using an NMR predictor, the peaks for p-methylaniline were calculated to be 144, 115.2, 129.60, 126.7 and 21.26 ppm, which match the observed peaks. Conclusion After performing IR spectroscopy, melting point and 13C NMR analysis, it was found that unknown compound 15 is p-methylaniline. P-methylaniline contains a benzene ring, methyl and amine groups in a p- position. Based on slight deviations in the melting point, the sample could have some impurities. An error could be improper loading of the sample in the capillary tube. So to avoid this chemical error, a better laboratory technique could be used. References IR Spectroscopy:Mohrig J.R. et al. Techniques in Organic Chemistry 2nd Ed. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Skoog, D. A., Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 3rd Ed   Stawikowski, M. Experiment 2: Identification of unknown compound based on IR spectroscopy, melting point analysis and supplemental 13C NMR spectroscopy data; BlackBoard Smiley RA (2000). Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons.

Nelson Mandela’s Fight for Freedom

Imagine yourself growing up in a country where you might get thrown in jail for drinking from the wrong water fountain; where just because of your skin color, you get paid less money than your neighbor who has the same job; where you can’t even walk on the same sidewalk just because of the pigment in your skin. For Nelson Mandela, this situation was a reality. This style of living began in 1948 and, thanks to Mandela, ended in 1994. Problems began when the National Party—dominated by Afrikaans-speaking descendants of the Dutch settlers—came to power in South Africa. Segregation and mistreatment of the less superior—non-whites–became a government policy called â€Å"apartheid,† which means â€Å"apartness† in the Afrikaans language. Nelson Mandela refused to bow down to the unjust of the government. Instead, he became one of the most important warriors in the battle to free South Africa. â€Å"We are at the beginning of an arduous and protracted struggle for a better quality of life. In the course of this struggle, we shall have immediate success; we shall have setbacks; but we shall certainly progress, inch by inch, towards our goal,† Nelson Mandela wrote in his book, In His Own Words. Most of Mandela’s life was filled with many battles, tribulations, and hardships. Born on July 18th, 1918 in Umtata, South Africa, Rolihlahla Nelson Mandela studied to become a lawyer. He then joined the African National Congress (ANC) in 1944. The ANC formed in 1912. It is a multiracial, nationalist organization that intended to extend voting rights to everyone in South Africa. This organization was also aiming to end racial discrimination. Even after thirty years of peaceful petitions to the government, the ANC never achieved any concessions. During the apartheid, blacks and whites had different laws that they were to follow. Blacks were not allowed to vote in parliamentary areas, for example, and they were limited in their use of most public places and institutions. Under apartheid, Africans, Europeans, and Indians all lived in separate homelands called â€Å"Bantustans. † While selected jobs were saved for whites, the leaders justified their rulings by guaranteeing that Africans would have full rights in their Bantustans. These full rights would grant Africans to have the poorest homes, schools, and hospitals. A majority of Africans disliked this system of apartheid. This also included Nelson Mandela. Protests were led by multiple leaders including Mandela. Some protests even ended deadly. For example, on March 21, 1960, an organization called, the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), called for a protest against the laws. In Sharpeville, a crowd of unarmed petitioners surrounded the police station. The police opened fire in the crowd and killed sixty-nine people, while wounding many more. The government was fighting back; not even caring that the laws that they issued, and the consequences that were given for not following the laws, may or may not be proper. Protestors could also be arrested. For instance, after the South African government declared a State of Emergency, the ANC was banned. This meant that its members could be arrested and imprisoned for up to ten years. However, these activists were willing to accept the idea of imprisonment or even death, for equality was the only thing that was on their minds. Though Nelson Mandela was eventually forced to take action when the government banned the African National Congress (ANC), he remained non-violent. Mandela’s method of fighting back was a powerful weapon: his speeches and protests. He had a strong belief that all people, no matter what race, were equal. â€Å"South Africa belongs to all people, not to one group, be it black or white. † Because Mandela was so dedicated to his belief in equality, he had to pay a high price: his freedom. Mandela and his fellow leaders believed that not only should they continue to fight against apartheid, but that they should take up arms against the government. Mandela alleged that there were only two choices to make: surrender, or fight. On August 5, 1962, Nelson Mandela was arrested. He was disguised as a white friend’s chauffer. At this point in time, the government was arresting all black leaders that took part in the Anti- Apartheid movement. So, in an attempt to avoid being arrested, Mandela was forced to live apart from his family. He moved from place to place to avoid being detected by government informers and spies. Usually during important events, like rallies, he would often disguise himself as a chauffer or a gardener. Mandela was nicknamed, â€Å"the Black Pimpernel,† because he was so he was so successful at dodging the police. However, he was not successful enough. After being arrested, Mandela was charged with inciting strikes and illegally leaving the country. He had often traveled to countries in North and West Africa to gain support. He also traveled to England where he met politicians. Throughout his trial—the Rivonia Trial—Mandela carried out his own defense. In the end, Mandela was found guilty and sentenced to prison at Robben Island for five years. This jail was bleak, unwelcoming, and depressing. It is about 7. 5 miles off the coast of Cape Town. Robben Island was one of the harshest prisons in South Africa. The island was bitterly cold in the winter and scorching hot in the summer. Prisoners could only wear short trousers with no shoes. The imprisoned were to sleep on mats that lay out on their cell floor. Mandela’s cell was less than thirty-two square feet. He was confined to it for sixteen hours each day. Even while Mandela was in prison, he still gave hope to the people who carried on the struggle against Apartheid. Mandela was brought to court once more with all of the leaders of the ANC. All were charged with sabotage and attempting to overthrow government offences, which would have resulted in a death sentence. When Mandela spoke at the trial, he said that a free, ideal society was what he wished to live for and to achieve. â€Å"†¦ If needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die. † No matter what the officials did to Mandela, he knew in his heart that no matter what the outcome was, he would indeed be free in the end. The judge sentenced the defendants to life imprisonment. The government anticipated that the prisoners on Robben Island would be forgotten. However, they were proven wrong. The anti- apartheid movement continued and a new movement to free Mandela even occurred. This movement actually went global. Nelson Mandela became the most famous political prisoner in the world. Leaders such as Desmond Tutu and Steven Biko continued to speak out against apartheid. Some, including Biko, paid with their lives. Some white South Africans even joined the anti-apartheid movement. Over the next months, outraged Africans rioted all over the country. Many were not willing to wait for change. During the 1980’s, the South African government offered to release Nelson Mandela multiple times. Each time the government asked, Mandela refused. In 1982, Mandela was moved from Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison which is on the mainland in Cape Town. In 1985, Mandela was offered freedom on condition that he stopped campaigning for the ANC. Again he refused because he believed that he still was not technically free since the apartheid was still going on. â€Å"I cherish my own freedom, but†¦I will not give any undertaking when you and I, the people, are not free. † On February 11, 1990, Nelson Mandela was released after 27 years. This day marked the beginning of the end of apartheid. In less than five years after his release, Nelson Mandela was granted the Nobel Peace Prize and was also elected the first African president of South Africa. In 1994, the apartheid officially ended when Nelson Mandela was elected the first black president of South Africa. Today, because of Nelson Mandela’s self -sacrifice, the apartheid has been outlawed. Everyone in South Africa has equal rights and can now live comfortable, productive lives. Many see Mandela as one of the most important people in world history, and one of the strongest warriors. Even after the troubles of the apartheid are long forgotten, Mandela’s personal triumphs will be remembered. â€Å"I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal the view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can rest only for a moment, for with freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my walk is not yet ended. † Because of Nelson Mandela and other leaders, laws telling people what jobs they could hold, or where they could live based on the color of their skin were abolished. In 1997, observers noticed that most South African blacks continued to live in desperate poverty and in terrible conditions. Black schools still lacked basic necessities like books and chalk. Some schools didn’t have any windows. However, for the first time in years, the South African government was trying to correct the problems of racial inequality. It would take large amounts of time and money, but South Africans felt great hope that the deed of creating equality would be fully achieved.

Analysis of Metabolic Strategies Essay

There are many micronutrients (substances needed in small amounts) essential to healthy living. These micronutrients include the vitamins, minerals and amino acids. A healthy diet includes the proper ratio of macronutrients along with the essential quantities of micronutrients. What is their biochemical or metabolic function? Subdivision of the global network was often based on the biochemical function of the pathway (i. e. amino acid metabolism, nucleotide metabolism). As an example of a biochemical pathway, note the first four reactions of glycolysis as follows: (1) glucose + ATP –(hexokinase)? glucose-6-phosphate + ADP; (2) glucose-6-phosphate ? (phosphoglucose isomerase)? fructose 6-phosphate; (3) fructose 6-phosphate + ATP –(phosphofructose kinase)? Fructose 1,6-diphosphate + ADP; (4) fructose 1,6-diphosphate -(aldolase)? dihydroxyacetone phosphate + glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Metabolism to generate energy for biochemical functions is carried out by all cells. Some tissues, because of their specialized functions in the multi-cellular organism, have different metabolic strategies. Muscle and liver have particular roles in overall metabolism: the brain has specific needs. Describe, compare and contrast the metabolic strategies during periods of high metabolic activity of muscle, liver, brain, and the general body tissues and in the ‘fed’ (digesting a meal) and ‘unfed’ (no nutrients coming from digestive tact) states. Having highly directional reactions at start and finish of a pathway is good metabolic strategy. The hexokinase and phosphofructokinase steps drive substrates into the sequence; the pathway can continue even if substrates are significantly depleted. Pyruvate kinase clears intermediates out of the pathway. Vitamins, minerals and amino acids are essential organic nutrients, essential molecular structures for life processes, that we cannot synthesize and must take in, in adequate amounts, as food. The following are the biological and metabolic functions of vitamins. Water soluble vitamin such as Vitamin C or ascorbic acid, which can be found in papaya, oranges, orange juice, kiwifruit, strawberries, cantaloupe, sweet red peppers, cauliflower, broccoli, brussels, sprouts, green peppers, grapefruit, kale, and strawberries, is important in the synthesis of collagen, which is the main structural component of the skin as well as many other body tissues. Vitamin C also works as a powerful antioxidant, aids in the absorption of iron, is critical in fighting off infections, helps alleviate allergic reactions, and aids in wound healing. Another water soluble vitamin, Thiamin or Vitamin B1 can be found in lean pork, sunflower seeds, wheat germ, whole or enriched grain products, organ meats and nuts and legumes. It is the required coenzyme or helper molecule in the metabolism of carbohydrates for energy, and proper transmission of nerve signals. It is also necessary for normal muscle function, growth, digestion, DNA replication, and normal appetite. Riboflavin or Vitamin B2, which can be found in milk, yogurt, cocoa, cheeses, eggs, meat and green leafy vegetables, is necessary in the release of energy from carbohydrates, the activation of many vitamins, and the breakdown of fat. Also required for the normal growth and tissue repair are the synthesis of red blood cells, corticosteroids, and glycogen. Niacin or Vitamin B3, which can be found in tuna, halibut, beef, chicken, turkey, pork, cereal grains, fortified cereals, seeds, legumes, peanut butter, is required by all cells and vital in the release of energy from food. It is also required for the synthesis of protein, fat, and genetic material. It is also required for proper metabolism and brain function. Panthothenic acid or Vitamin B5, which is widely distributed in foods, can be found in liver, peanuts, wheat germ, brewer’s yeast, egg yolk, legumes, whole grain cereals, mushrooms, broccoli, avocados, royal jelly from bees. It is critical in the synthesis and breakdown of many body compounds. It is necessary for the metabolism of food and normal immune function. Also plays a role in the synthesis of hormones, cholesterol, and neurotransmitters. Biotin is widely distributed and can be found in liver, soybeans, egg yolk, cereal, yeast, legumes, nuts. It is needed for proper energy metabolism (especially carbohydrates and protein) and growth. It is critical in the production of fatty acids, prostaglandins, antibodies, digestive enzymes, hormones, and cholesterol. It is also important in niacin metabolism. Folic acid is a synthetic form found in fortified cereals and supplements. It is also called Folate (natural form found in food). It can be found in brewer’s yeast, beans, spinach, wheat germ, asparagus, turnip greens, green leafy vegetables, fortified cereals. It is important in the metabolism of proteins and in the synthesis of new proteins. It is a necessary component in the production of red blood cells, necessary for normal cellular division and production of DNA. Folate also increases appetite and digestive acids. Research is also showing folate may reduce the risk for heart disease and certain cancers. Folate plays an important role in tissue growth and function and can significantly reduce the risk of neural tube defects (birth defects of the brain or spine). Vitamin B12 or cobalamin, which can be found in meat and meat products, poultry, fish, yogurt, fortified cereals, fortified soy-milk, tuna, shellfish, eggs and fortified tofu, is important in metabolism, essential for DNA synthesis, production of red blood cells, and proper nerve function. Inadequate absorption of the vitamin rather than inadequate dietary intake is responsible for more than 95% of the vitamin B12 deficiency seen in the US. A strict vegetarian diet can produce a deficiency, although clinical symptoms may not appear for up to 20-30 years. Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine, which can be found in potato, bananas, beans, walnuts, watermelon, meats, salmon and light meat of chicken, is needed for proper protein metabolism, the conversion of tryptophan to niacin, and the synthesis of fatty acids. It is Necessary for normal growth, proper brain and immune function, synthesis of red blood cells, and hormone regulation. Fat soluble vitamin like vitamin A or retinol (comes from animal sources like egg yolks, butter, whole milk products, liver and fish liver oils) or beta-carotene (precursor to Vitamin A, which comes from plant sources like pumpkin, spinach (boiled), butternut squash cantaloupe and dark leafy greens). It is a powerful antioxidant which helps the body fight free-radical damage and seems to provide some protection against cancer. It is essential for normal vision, reproduction, growth, immune function, healthy skin and mucous membranes, and normal bone growth and development. Vitamin D comes primarily in foods of animal origin like eggs, liver, butter, fatty fish, salmon with bones, fortified soy milk and fortified foods such as milk and margarine. Vitamin D can also be made by the body when the skin is exposed to sunlight. It is essential to maintain bone and teeth strength and integrity. It also aids in calcium absorption. Vitamin E comes from pant oils (such as sunflower and safflower oil), wheat germ, whole grains, unroasted almonds, sunflower seeds, Brazil nuts, mango, green leafy vegetables and broccoli. Vitamin E is well on its way to becoming a superhero in the antioxidant army. Due to its fat-soluble nature it can do its antioxidant work where most of the other antioxidants can’t go. Vitamin E is incorporated into cell membranes as well as guarding the the fat molecules in the bloodstream from free-radical damage. Studies have also shown that it is a potent stimulator of the immune system, helping protect the thymus gland and guarding white blood cells from damage. Vitamin E has also been shown to reduce levels of inflammatory prostaglandins, which can lead to a number of health problems. By keeping the body’s level of Vitamin E from dropping you will benefit from a decreased incidence of various cancers, decreased risk of heart disease and strokes, and free-radical protection. When incorporating exercise and physical activity into your daily life Vitamin E becomes even more important. As you exercise, your rate of respiration increases which leads to an increase in the production of free-radicals. This increase in free-radical production has been shown to play an important role in causing skeletal muscle damage and inflammation after strenuous exercise. Vitamin K, which comes primarily from plant foods, spinach, broccoli, kale, Brussels, sprouts, cabbage, lettuce, cereals, fruits, dairy products and meats. Bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract also provide a the body with vitamin K. It is essential for proper blood clotting and plays a role in normal bone calcification. For the minerals like calcium, sources are milk, milk products, calcium fortified, orange juice, part-skim ricotta cheese, yogurt, cocoa, sardines, clams, oysters, turnip greens, mustard greens, broccoli, legumes and dried fruit. It is essential for normal bone and tooth formation, overall growth, blood clotting, regulation of heart rate, and proper nerve transmission. Phosphorus may come from meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, milk products, nuts, legumes, cereals, grains, chocolate, lettuce and tomato. It is essential for a number of biochemical reactions in the body, especially energy production, metabolism of protein, carbohydrate and fat, and building protein. It also gives strength to bones and teeth, and plays a role in the regulation of acid-base balance, muscle contraction, kidney function, and proper nerve function. Magnesium, which comes from nuts and seeds, legumes, green vegetables, tofu, wheat germ, cereal grains, soybeans, chocolate, blackstrap molasses, corn, peas, carrots, seafood, brown rice, parsley, lima beans and spinach. It is essential in hundreds of biochemical reactions and a wide range of metabolic activities including the use of energy and the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and genetic material. It is also necessary for proper nerve transmission, contraction of muscle, and the conversion of Vitamin D to its active form. Spinach is essential in hundreds of biochemical reactions and a wide range of metabolic activities including the use of energy and the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and genetic material. It is also necessary for proper nerve transmission, contraction of muscle, and the conversion of Vitamin D to its active form. Sodium, which can be found in table salt, cured meat, cheese and bread, is necessary for the regulation of water balance within the body, the passage of substances in and out of each cell, and the maintenance of a normal body pH. Also plays a role in the generation of normal electrical nerve signals, muscle contraction, and the regulation of blood pressure. Potassium is an essential part of every cell in the body and required for normal growth. It is also involved in the release of energy from food, the synthesis of protein, regulation of water balance in the body, proper nerve and muscle function, and regulation of blood pressure. Chloride can be found in table salt, seafood, tomatoes, rye and olives. It helps maintain water balance and acid-base balance in the body. Iron, which can be found in meat (provides iron in the non-heme form which is the easiest for the body to absorb), blackstrap molasses, clams, oysters, tofu, legumes, nuts and seeds, red meats, dark green leafy vegetables (Vegetables provide iron in the non-heme form, which is harder for the body to absorb. Consuming vitamin C with iron rich foods will help increase absorption), soybeans, pumpkin seeds, dried fruits, enriched and/or whole-grain, breads and cereals, is critical in making new red blood cells, immune defense cells, white blood cells, and normal brain function. Zinc, which can be found in oysters, wheat germ, beef, liver, dark meat of turkey and, chicken, peanuts, whole grains, miso, legumes, sunflower seeds, blackstrap molasses, green peas, spinach, broccoli. It is essential for proper growth of skin, hair, and nails, healing wounds, and a healthy immune system. It is necessary in many chemical reactions and for a normal sense of taste and smell. It also functions as a detoxifier of the body and plays a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Copper, which can be found in liver, shellfish, whole grains, mushrooms, cherries, legumes, cocoa, nuts, eggs, muscle meats, fish and poultry, is a critical component of the outer coating of nerve fibers, collagen, and used in the production of skin pigments. Also works with iron to make healthy red blood cells. Seleniem, which can be found in grains, seeds, potatoes, meat, poultry, fish, garlic, brewer’s yeast and wheat germ, is important antioxidant that works with vitamin E to protect the body from free-radical damage. It is also associated with fat metabolism, a healthy immune system, and important to male fertility. Chromium, which can be found in wheat germ, brewer’s yeast, peas , chicken, corn oil mushrooms, prunes, nuts, asparagus, organ meats and whole-grain bread and cereals, is necessary for blood sugar regulation and metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. Iodine, which comes from iodized salt, saltwater seafood, sunflower seeds, mushrooms, eggs, beef liver, peanuts, spinach, pumpkin, broccoli, chocolate and kelp, is needed for proper thyroid gland operation and normal metabolism of cells. Manganese which comes from wheat bran, legumes, nuts, lettuce, leafy green vegetables, blueberries, pineapple, seafood, poultry, meat and tea, is needed for normal utilization of several other vitamins, and a variety of other biochemical roles in the body. It also aids in proper fat metabolism, skeletal and connective tissues, production of energy, making cholesterol and DNA, proper brain function, and processing blood sugar. Molybdenum, which can be found in milk and milk products, soybeans, lentils, pasta, buckwheat, oats, rice, wheat germ and sunflower seeds, is important in many biochemical reactions, aids in the metabolism of iron, helps prevent gout by removing uric acid from the body, and helps the body burn fat. It is also part of healthy bones, teeth, kidney, and liver, and helps the body use its iron reserves. and helps the body use its iron reserves. Flouride, which comes from mackerel, sardines, salt pork, salmon, shrimp, meat, sunflower seeds, kale, potatoes, watercress, honey, wheat and tea, reduces dental caries and may minimize bone loss by helping the body retain calcium. Nickel, which can be found in nuts, legumes, shellfish, cocoa products, green beans, spinach, rice and tea, is important in many biochemical reactions, and thought to play a role in the metabolism of fats and blood sugar regulation. Silicon, which can be found in whole grains, root vegetables and unrefined cereal products, is needed for healthy body tissues. Vanadium can be found in shellfish, spinach, parsley, mushrooms, whole grains, dill seeds, black pepper, parsley, soy, corn and olives. Research has not documented exactly what vanadium does for the body. It is likely that it plays a role in energy production, biochemical reactions, blood sugar and fat metabolism, and bone and teeth strength. Most foods contain less than 0. 3ug/g arsenic. Seafood is the richest source of arsenic. Arsenic has precise function in the body is still unknown, but it is likely that it plays a role in the metabolism of phospholipids. Boron, which can be found in fruits, vegetables, legumes and nuts is required for normal bone integrity. Amino acids are the principal building blocks of proteins and enzymes. They are incorporated into proteins by transfer RNA according to the genetic code while messenger RNA is being decoded by ribosomes. During and after the final assembly of a protein, the amino acid content dictates the spatial and biochemical properties of the protein or enzyme. The amino acid backbone determines the primary sequence of a protein, but it is the nature of the side chains that determine the protein’s properties. Amino acid side chains can be polar, non-polar, or practically neutral. Polar side chains tend to be present on the surface of a protein where they can interact with the aqueous environment found in cells. On the other hand, non-polar amino acids tend to reside within the center of the protein where they can interact with similar non-polar neighbors. This can create a hydrophobic region within an enzyme where chemical reactions can be conducted in a non-polar atmosphere. Likewise, enzymes can also have polar amino acid substituents within the active site that provide a polar region in which to conduct biochemical synthesis. In addition to their role in protein and enzyme synthesis, amino acids are actively involved in a broad range of functions in the body. For instance, the organic substances help form cells, heal damaged tissues, and produce antibodies. These antibodies are important to the body’s efforts to ward off potentially harmful invasions of viruses and bacteria (Weigel and Seitz, 2006). Also active as metabolic intermediates, amino acids are capable of transporting oxygen through the body and play a part in muscular function. Several of the amino acids, such as the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that is found in the central nervous system, but not in proteins, carry out very specific roles in the body. Other examples of such amino acids include carnitine, which is concerned in fatty acid transport within a cell, as well as ornithine and citrulline, both of which are key components in the body’s urea cycle. Essential amino acids are generally contained in the greatest quantities in meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and other animal products. They are also, found, however in grains, legumes, and similar vegetable sources of protein, though one or more essential amino acids may be missing from such foods. For this reason, vegetarians are generally urged to carefully consume a wide range of foods in order that they regularly obtain the complete array of essential amino acids, since different plants lack different types of the important compounds. Nevertheless, amino acid deficiencies are extremely rare in the United States, since Americans commonly consume twice as much protein as is considered necessary each day. Moreover, for athletes or other individuals who need greater amounts of amino acids than most people, supplements are widely available. Some amino acids are even prescribed as a form of medical treatment. Lysine, for example, is utilized to suppress the herpes virus and phenylalanine gains use in some pain and depression therapies. Nevertheless, over-consumption of amino acids can be hazardous, since the compounds can be toxic in excessive quantities. Eukaryotes, such as ourselves, are characterized by membrane bound internal compartments or organelles (Mergaert, et al. , 2006). These compartments allow cells to (a) conserve resources by producing proteins at the appropriate concentration only in these organelles, (b) separate functional areas that might interfere with each other, e. g. , lysosomes, ER and nucleus, and (c) manage reactions in biochemical pathways. Aspects of the carbohydrate, amino acid and fatty acid metabolic processes we have considered have steps that occur in the cytoplasm and the mitochondrion or other cellular organelles (Embley and Martin, 2006). In here, a multi-step reaction within a cell is catalyzed by enzymes. Almost every reaction that occurs within an organism (which is to that organism’s benefit) occurs along a biochemical pathway and is catalyzed one or a series of enzymes. Biochemical pathways are discussed fully by Stryer (1987) â€Å"Biochemical pathways are the organizational units of metabolism, the pathways that energy and materials follow in the cell. † A biochemical pathway may be anabolic, catabolic, or both. An anabolic biochemical pathway may be referred to as a biosynthetic pathway. An example of a catabolic bioochemical pathway is transduction of the chemical energy found in foods into a usable form (digestion, glycolysis, cellular respiration). The biochemical pathways are glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport system, lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism. These different parts of the processes is performed in different cellular compartments. Citric Acid Cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. All the reactions of the citric acid cycle take place in the mitochondrial matrix with the exception of succinic dehydrogenase, which is part of Complex II of the inner membrane. It is important not to regard FADH2 as the product of this reaction, which is still often done. FAD is the first, but only a transient, carrier of electrons from succinate to ubiquinone. Indeed the official name of the enzyme is succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone). The mitochondrion is often regarded as the powerhouse of the cell, and this designation becomes much more meaningful if we remember that a flow of electrons is an electric current, and NADH and succinate provide the fuel for an electricity generator. The pathway is often called the electron transport chain, but its function is to create a flow of electrons (shown in Fig. 1 as heavy red arrows) to provide the energy needed to translocate protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the inter-membrane space (Nicholson, 2002). The Electron Transport System occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Mitochondria function during aerobic respiration to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The respiratory enzymes and electron carriers for the electron transport system are located within the inner mitochondria membrane. The enzymes for the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) are located in the matrix. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cytoplasm. In eukaryotes, glycolysis takes place within the cytosol of the cell. Some of the glycolytic reactions are conserved in the Calvin cycle that functions inside the chloroplast. This is consistent with the fact that glycolysis is highly conserved in evolution, being common to nearly all living organisms. This suggests great antiquity; it may have originated with the first prokaryotes, 3. 5 billion years ago or more. Metabolism to generate energy for biochemical functions is carried out by all cells. Some tissues, because of their specialized functions in the multi-cellular organism, have different metabolic strategies. Muscle and liver have particular roles in overall metabolism: the brain has specific needs. Describe, compare and contrast the metabolic strategies during periods of high metabolic activity of muscle, liver, brain, and the general body tissues and in the ‘fed’ (digesting a meal) and ‘unfed’ (no nutrients coming from digestive tact) states. Absorptive state is the period during which ingested nutrients enter blood and some of these nutrients supply the energy need of the body while the remainder is stored. Post-absorptive state is the period during which the GI tract is empty of nutrients and body stores must supply required energy. In the absorptive state, carbohydrates and proteins are absorbed primarily as monosaccharides and amino acids, respectively, into the blood while fat is absorbed as triacylglycerols into the lymph. During this state, glucose is the major energy source and some of it is converted to glycogen and stored in skeletal muscle and liver. In adipose tissue, glucose is transformed and stored as fat. Fatty acids of plasma chylomicrons are released within adipose tissue capillaries and form triacylglycerols. Most amino acids enter cells and are used to synthesize proteins and any excess amino acids are converted to carbohydrate or fat. On the other hand, in the postabsorptive state, the net synthesis of glycogen, fat, and protein ceases, and net catabolism of these substances begins. Plasma glucose level is maintained by Glycogenolysis, which is the hydrolysis of glycogen stores in liver, adipose tissues, brain, muscles, skeletal muscles, etc. ; Lipolysis, catabolism of triacylglycerols into glycerol and fatty acids in adipose tissues wherein any glycerol reaching the liver is converted to glucose; and protein is catabolized to glucose. References: Embley, T. M. , & Martin, W. (2006). Eukaryotic evolution, changes and challenges. Nature, 440(7084), 623-630. Mergaert, P. , Uchiumi, T. , Alunni, B. , Evanno, G. , Cheron, A. , Catrice, O. , et al. (2006). Eukaryotic control on bacterial cell cycle and differentiation in the Rhizobium-legume symbiosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 103(13), 5230-5235. Nicholson, D. 2002. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 3-5. The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Stryer, Lubert (1987). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman. Weigel, C. , & Seitz, H. (2006). Bacteriophage replication modules. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 30(3), 321-381.

Planning For The Mental Health Of Children Essay - 1774 Words

Planning for the mental health of children in ECE Introduction â€Å"You will make it through this and it will make you stronger† (Gluck). The mental health of children has constantly increased over the years. Mental health is defined as the emotional and psychological well-being of a human. The social-emotional development of early childhood children is crucial for a healthy development and advancement into adulthood. A strong social-emotional development help predict how a child will perform later in life, e.g. with social, academic and emotional progress (Waltz). My topic selection was due to my personal interest and concern with mental health. My younger brother suffers from depression, which has affected his mental health over the past few years. When my brother was in middle school, my family and I had no idea he was having difficulty and hardships in school; he kept his feelings bottled up inside. By containing all his emotions, it affected his relationships with my parents, me, and his teachers and friends at school. My brother is a great kid, and has an unlimited amount of potential because he extremely talented in the arts. I believe his artistic skills will take him far in life and make him very well-known one day. However, all of his talent and potential got beat up by his depression. The depression took over his life; furthermore, he did not go to school, he dropped out of his extracurricular activities, and he became very distinct. 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